Butoh Dancers
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Butoh Dancers
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The concept of honne/tatemae shapes Japanese behavior and has had profound effects on the culture. honne/tatemae is commonly used to refer to social interactions and the maintenance of a respectable image to others. Honne means one's inner self and true feelings, while tatemae, which literally means "facade," signifies a false or constructed front. The maintenance of wa, harmony, is accomplished through this non- confrontational behavior-Tatemae may be viewed as one's "performed self," the act that one puts on day to day to impress or project a certain appearance to others.1 Old Japan strongly discouraged any and all rebellion or subversive thought. Japan began to modernize prior to World War II, and with the dropping of the two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, the nation experienced almost complete liberation from its strict and conventional social norms. During World War II, artistic expression and creation had been limited, as the country had sought to marshal the arts to fit its war agenda. Thus, with this liberation came an explosion of creativity and artistic works-painters, writers and dancers were in the streets, participating in street theaters and making active protests. This atmosphere inspired Hijikata Tatsumi,2 with the help of Ohno Kazuo, to create an entirely new form of dance called Butoh. While World War II was a liberating force for Hijikata, an older dancer, Ito Michio experienced an opposite effect. Ito had lived and worked in America, mostly in New York and Los Angeles, as a successful dancer and choreographer for over twenty years; however, with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, he was incarcerated and sent back to Japan. Although Ito established his own modern dance school in Japan upon his return, his overall outlook had changed as would his dance and choreography; the Ito Michio that America and Europe had grown to love had been lost to the War.
In 1868, Japan entered the Meiji Period, restoring the power of the Meiji Emperor; the Edo Period, under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate ended. Prior to Tokugawa Ieyasu's stringent rule over Japan, the country had been in turmoil, with various city-states fighting for ultimate control of Japan. With a victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu assumed control over Japan, strictly governing the country by the codification of a system of four classes and closing off the country (contrary to popular belief, Japan was not entirely closed to foreigners, although it was very difficult for Westerners to enter Japan and for the people of Japan to leave).3 Due to the order that was imposed by the stringent system, towns grew and capitalism flourished. The Tokugawa period is viewed as the Japanese Renaissance, with the emergence of the merchant class and the rise of capitalism. The isolation of Japan from other cultures allowed the arts to focus on things distinctly Japanese, without outside influence; during this period, art became increasingly representative of the lower and middle classes-an example is that the shamisen, the Japanese banjo, exceeded the popularity of the koto, the Japanese harp.
The Meiji Period marked the beginning of Japanese modernization and westernization. With the opening of Japan came a sudden influx of Western culture. In 1853, American Commodore Perry and the Black Ships landed in Japan, officially opening the nation to the rest of the world for international trade. The Unequal Treaties gave various Western nations the upper hand in trade with Japan, implementing policies like negligible taxes on imported goods and even allowing Americans to live and do business in Osaka and Tokyo without interference by the Japanese government. The Kanagawa Treaty which was signed on March 31, 1854 with the United States is exemplary of this extortion, and similar treaties were signed with numerous other nations, including, but not limited to Russia, France, the United Kingdom and Austria- Hungary.4 The Japanese assented to such unfavorable agreements in hopes of averting a war with the Western powers, learning from China's mistakes and defeat in the Opium War. Fukoku kyohei, "rich country, strong army" became a slogan of the Japanese during the Meiji period, signifying that an offense would be the strongest defense against an attack or war against Western powers.
Due to the rapid changes occurring in Japanese society at this time, there was also a push to preserve traditional Japanese culture and custom, including that of dance. The term nihon buyo was coined in the Meiji Period, long after the inception of the dance, by an intellectual who feared the loss of Japanese traditions in the face of Westernization and quickly shifting fads. 5 Nihon buyo, "nihon" meaning Japan and "buyo" meaning dance, included kabuki buyo and noh buyo. Dances were often based on folk tales, and instead of foregrounding technique, the effort put into the dance was most valued. 6 Nihon buyo has three primary elements-mai, odori and shosa. Mai is slow and stately, odori is joyous and light and shosa is an expression of emotion through dance.7
Noh buyo, more commonly referred to as noh, is the oldest existing form of Japanese theater, originating in the fourteenth century during the Ashikaga Period. Noh theater was minimalist and directly related to yugen, the Japanese concept of "sublime mystery." 8 Through the suggestiveness, simplicity and realist nature of noh, audiences were able to arrive at an enlightening truth which the play portrayed. Noh involves slow movements, each of which carries great meaning. Masks are used in noh to give an inhuman expression, while allowing the dancers to express emotions through a tilt of the head or other body language. Instrumental accompaniments for noh buyo include the Japanese flute, yokobue, and drums. To this day in Japan, certain families pass down the noh tradition, with each father teaching his son the ways of noh, preserving this important element of the Japanese culture.
When kabuki buyo was initially introduced during the Tokugawa period, it shocked Japanese society-people found it to be sexy and scandalous. "Kabuki" can be broken down into three syllables-"ka" meaning "song," "bu" meaning dance and "ki" meaning "skill." However, the word kabuki may also have originated from the Japanese word, kabuku, meaning deviant or out of the ordinary. Kabuki and bunraku, Japanese puppet theater, which also comes from the Tokugawa period, were designed to appeal to the common people.
Dancer and pioneer of Japanese modern dance, Ito Michio was born in Kanda, Tokyo on April 13, 1892 [?]. Ito's father, well-known architect Ito Tamekichi, and his mother, Iijima Kimiye, were progressive thinkers, whose seven children ultimately pursued artistic professions. Ito's paternal grandfather, a traditional samurai, however, like many others in Japan, was opposed to the entrance of the West into Japan and the acceptance of modern ideals.
Ito studied piano and Japanese drama and dance, including kabuki, during his childhood. 9 In 1911, he moved to Paris to study voice, however, after watching Vaslav Nijinsky perform, he decided he would prefer to pursue dancing instead of singing. He began studies at the Dalcroze Institute in Germany in 1912, a system which was "an integrated approach to dance, music and drama." 10
Ito wrote in a 1937 program note:
When the technique of any art form is mastered, it is possible to express the inner life. Everyone has his own individual feeling and mode of expression, therefore the dance should be a creation, not an imitation. 11
Ito Michio
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Ito deemed his dancing to be not Japanese in nature, saying, "...it is my desire to bring together the East and the West. My dancing is not Japanese. It is not anything-only myself." 12 He made a constant effort to emphasize that his dance was not specifically Japanese and tried to make himself and his works appear worldly.
The most distinguishing characteristic of Ito's technique is the focus on the upper body and arms. Although traditional Japanese dance makes much use of the arms, upper body and head and puts emphasis on these body parts, it is possible that Ito actually was influenced by the Greek notion that the upper body was more capable of expression than the legs, feet and lower body.
Ito choreographed and performed the role of the Hawk in the poetic drama version of William Butler Yeats' At the Hawk's Well. Both W. B. Yeats and Ezra Pound were absolutely fascinated with the Japanese noh theater. Ito had not seen a Noh play since he was seven, a play which he had been forced to go. To prepare and create At the Hawk's Well, Ito had to do extensive research on Noh, as he knew nothing about the form, sentiment or technique of the traditional dance form.
Also in London at the time were two of Ito's high school classmates, Kume Tami and Kayano Jisoichi, who were both skilled at utai, the singing part of Noh. They sang for Pound, Ito and Yeats at Pound's flat. Perhaps it was increased maturity that allowed Ito to appreciate and better understand the traditional art of his culture, but that day in Pound's flat, he experienced a sudden realization of the beauty of utai. 13
At the Hawk's Well premiered at the Coliseum Theater in London on May 5, 1915. Ito played the role of the Hawk Guardian of the Well, and his dance was extremely similar to Noh, with:
tense, continuous movement with subtle variations on its monotony, including a trance like state in both personages and audience-but its increase in tempo was more rapid than in genuine Noh and the arm movement was broad and smoothly dramatic.14
During Ito's time in Paris, he had become fascinated with the art in the Egyptian room in the Louvre. Ito's choreography for the role of the Hawk reflected his interest in the Egyptian images at the Louvre, those of the grand birds with their wings spread open, soaring through the air. The faces of the chorus were painted excessively to resemble masks in the style of kabuki, as was Ito's. "If you cry 'Stop!' in any place in my dance, you will find that it is a pose that means something." 15 Ito's explanation of his dance relates to noh, in that every movement is performed with purpose.
Ito's premiere dance recital in the United States took place on December 6, 1916, presenting the audience with "interpretations of both Japanese and European music. 16 He lived in New York from 1916 until 1929. A writer from the Tribune commented on Ito's "exotic appeal." 17 At this time in the United States, the myth of the exoticism and enigma of the Oriental was rampant, and Ito fed the fire with his works. Ruth St. Denis, one of the pioneers of modern dance, who attracted audiences with her "ethnic" dances, trained with Ito in the 1920s; 18 Ito's later American pupils included Pauline Koner and Lester Horton. He also worked with Martha Graham, and she was featured in a few of his dances.
Ito moved to Los Angeles in 1929. There he taught classes, which were open for all, even people with no dance background. Many writers, sculptors and artists frequented his lessons. Ito's greatest accomplishments on the West Coast include major dance pieces, choreographed to be performed at the Rose Bowl and Hollywood Bowl, each with over 150 performers and live music (Music by the Hollywood Symphony Orchestra at the Rose Bowl and by the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl).
During the early Showa period in Japan which began in 1926 and lasted until 1989, the nation completely mobilized and undertook a militaristic attitude. After seeing China being torn to bits by Western forces, Japan decided that it would not make the same mistake. Kokutai, national polity, was the idea that the Japanese were a divine race, whose purpose was to lead the rest of Asia. It is said that kokutai was fuel for the "Japanese War Machine," 19 although notably, not all Japanese supported a war. As expression was basically forbidden, dissenters rarely expressed these sentiments.
In the early morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. With the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Ito's time in the United States came to an end. He was arrested, unfairly, as were Japanese-Americans at this time, 20 and was sent to an internment camp in Missoula, Montana, being separated from his wife (and former dancer), Hazel Wright Ito, and two children, Douglas and Gerald. 21 He returned to Japan later that year as part of a prisoner exchange. Back in Japan, Ito created shows at the Ernie Pyle Theater for the Occupation. He founded a modern dance studio in Osaka and returned to America sporadically in years following to choreograph for television. Sadly, Ito's post-World War II work was nothing like his work prior to the War, and he never again made mention to the work that he had done in America before 1941.
On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima; three days later, the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. This was one of the first times in Japanese history when Japan appeared vulnerable. After victories over Western forces in the Russo-Japanese War and in the East with multiple battles fought with China and Korea, Japan had seemed invincible.
The American occupation of Japan following World War II lasted from 1945 until 1952. On August 15, 1945, the Showa Emperor, born with the name Hirohito, renounced the notion of himself as a divinity, thus reducing himself to a symbol of the state. General Douglas MacArthur, who led the Occupation, served as the emperor's military adviser. By 1952, Japan had virtually recovered its level of output and was as politically viable as it had been prior to the War. During the War, Japan had banned and censored all Western dance and drama, among other Western things. Japan's surrender and the United States' subsequent Occupation brought an end to this censorship; shortly thereafter, Western dance became all the rage, first in Tokyo, then throughout of Japan. In the 1950s, modern dance schools all over Japan were founded and flourished. Martha Graham's company visited Japan in 1955, heavily influencing Japanese modern dance of the time. It has been said that Butoh "directed its anti-Western antagonism" toward work that was inspired by the Graham choreography and style. 22
Japan's quick economic recovery invoked social change, leading to the corrosion of the positions of the emperor, state and family by the Japanese people. Japan's people can be said to have lost confidence in their nation, evident in the less frequent flying of the Japanese flag and the use of the term "Nihon" instead of "Nippon" to represent Japan, as "Nippon" carried connotations of the imperial, militaristic age. There was much questioning of authority, and social norms were relaxed. Arranged marriages became less frequent and more young couples began to marry out of "love and free will" 123 Juvenile delinquency and crime increased and political expression through creative means abounded. Street and agit-prop theater, for example, were highly provocative and bold, worlds away from the quiet politeness of noh. These performances in public were new to a liberated Japan, and in them, Hijikata Tatsumi found inspiration to create an entirely original form of dance.
In May 1959, Butoh dance premiered at the Modern Dance Festival in Japan with the performance Kinjiki, or "Forbidden Colors" by Hijikata Tatsumi and Ohno Yoshito, the son of Ohno Kazuo. Ohno Kazuo and Hijikata are viewed as the founders of Butoh. Hijikata was born on March 9, 1928 in a small town named Tohoku in the northern part of Japan in the Akita prefecture. 24
Originally called ankoku buyo, meaning "dance of darkness," Butoh was born out of the widespread creative movement in post-World War II Japan, and is said to be "distinctly Japanese," drawing from both Noh and Kabuki. The darkness to which the word ankoku refers is the darkness of the human soul, the darkness of society. Hijikata sought to uncover the fact that deformity, ugliness and darkness existed in Japan, topics which had been frequently pushed under the rug, shunned and ignored, as they interfered with honne/tatemae. One was expected not to mention such things, and the Japanese had done a good job of suppressing these issues with respect to their society and its expressive arts. Other controversial themes, male homosexuality in particular, were also explored through Butoh.
Butoh also drew influence from the German expressionist movement. Ohno's teacher, Eguchi Takaya had trained with Mary Wigman in Germany, and learned to incorporate "elements of this German neue Tanz such as loud music and dramatic and emotional expressions;" 25 Hijikata and Ohno, in turn, also used these elements in their choreography. Harald Kreutzberg and other dancers from Germany performed in Japan at the end of the 1930s, shaping Japanese modern dance with their expressionist work. Hijikata pulled from these new Western ideas, being especially inspired by "the paintings of Bosch, Breugel, and Goya, from surrealism, dada, and later, 1960s pop art." 26
The white face paint, which in Butoh is often used over the whole body, is taken directly from Kabuki, while the slow, meaningful and continuous movements are similar to those from Noh. The lack of human expressionism, and desire to manifest oneself as a nonhuman character, is something shared between Noh and Butoh. Japan's surrender at the end of World War II formed a break between the militarism of the past and offered the Japanese a chance to create a new culture and rebuild their image. At this time, many revolutionary ideas were being contemplated and the streets were full of artists and performers displaying their works, many of which were political and social protests.
Butoh breaks the unspoken rule of honne/tatemae. In other words, whereas Japanese tradition teaches one to be conservative in action and word, Butoh utterly inverts this principle. Perhaps because dance is nonverbal, and thus less explicit, "dance presents unusual opportunities for rebelling not merely against traditional artistic regimens but also against the accepted conventions of a tightly structured society." 27 Clearly in rebellion against Old Japan, Butoh sought to break away from conventional theater and dance, often with Butoh dancers performing naked, their bodies painted white. Butoh's unashamed nudity draws a clear step away from Japanese modesty. Unlike Ito's so-called "ethnically neutral" dance, Butoh is distinctly Japanese, though influenced and inspired by German expressionist dance.
Butoh may also, however, be viewed as a reaction against Japanese modernity and the meaninglessness of the new, modern desires of Japan, also expressing anger over Japanese involvement in war games with the United States.28 The signing of the Mutual Defense Treaty with the United States on September 8, 1951 sparked violent protest among the Japanese, which fueled Hijikata's creativity. The naked, white bodies dancing on stage metaphorize the proud, shameless nation of Japan, prior to World War II and its Westernization. Nonetheless, the contorted, deformed bodies of Butoh can be seen as an acknowledgment of Japan's defeat.
Kinjiki was based on Mishima Yukio's novel, Forbidden Colors, about homosexuality between men. In Kinjiki, before an audience of approximately two-hundred people, Hijikata gave the effect of having sexual intercourse with a chicken, strangling the bird between his legs. Not surprisingly, a few audience members are reported to have fainted. Shortly thereafter, Hijikata was labeled as "a 'dangerous' performer by the prevailing powers in Japanese dance." 29 It was sometimes wondered if these Butoh dancers had been clinically insane-"Audiences wondered out loud if Butoh dancers might not have escaped from mental hospitals." 30
Hijikata Tatsumi
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Another specific example where Butoh diverges from Japanese conservativeness and traditionalism is Hijikata's Nikutai no Hanran (Revolt of the Flesh), which lamented the death of Japan. His costume included "an oversized strapped-on penis, pink dress, knee socks and wild lion hair and beard and mustache." 31 Hijikata did not appear wearing these items all at the same time, or when he did, he emphasized them differently at varying points in the piece. When he wore the dress which was a gaudy, ruffled piece with a fairly large slit, 32 he made feminine movements with his hands and head. Although his facial expressions were grotesque as Butoh aspires to be, they definitely had a feminine touch augmented by the costume. At another point, he appeared to be wearing only the strapped-on penis, and was violently jumping up and down. Another interpretation of Revolt of the Flesh depicted in Mark Holborn's "Tatsumi Hijikata and the Origins of Butoh:"
Hijikata appeared demonic.... He was carried onstage on a palanquin beneath a sunshade; a rabbit dangled on a pole beside him and a cockerel was suspended by its claws. In a G-string with a protruding phallus, Hijikata jerked and twitched in spasmodic rhythm. At one stage he appeared in a dress. At the climax he was suspended across the stage, entwined in ropes as if he were being torn apart or in the posture of crucifixion. 33
Butoh is now known internationally, with Butoh companies producing new works in the United States, Canada, Europe, Mexico, Australia and South America. In Tokyo, one has the opportunity to watch Butoh on a nightly basis. Dancers all over the globe have been adding their own cultural flair to Butoh; in Mexico, Diego Piñón, who studied with Ohno Yoshito, has created his own type of Butoh, Butoh Ritual Mexicano Dance. There is even a Butoh company in Copenhagen, the Nordic School of Butoh.
As a single artistic movement, Butoh may not have heavily affected Japanese society, though when aggregated with the rest of the artistic and politically-influenced work of Japan in the late 1940s until the 1960s, we see that its effect was considerable. Both Ito and Hijikata have had tremendous influence on Japanese modern dance-Hijikata's studio, Asubesto Kan, still remains in Japan, while many of his pupils have branched out on their own. The same goes for Ito, both in Japan and America. An interesting contrast between Ito's dance and Butoh is that Ito stylized his dance to appeal to the masses, for Hollywood, with theatrical glamour and sparkle. Conversely, Butoh is raw and real, confronting situations and topics like death, homosexuality 34 and insanity which had been ignored by Japan for centuries, and were not popular. Another example of where Ito conformed while Butoh does not is that Ito believed that "dance was inseparable from music," 35 while Butoh is danced to no music, or sometimes not in time with the rhythm of music, purposely deviating from what had typically been expected in dance.
Ito was a traveler and performer of the world, while Hijikata remained in Japan for his whole life, refusing to get a passport, as he deemed it unnecessary to leave Japan. One of the enigmas of Japan is that it is quite difficult for a Japanese artist to achieve fame and be considered as successful in Japan without first achieving recognition and fame by other countries, namely Western ones. Japanese performers who leave Japan, become accomplished elsewhere, and then return home are treated as heroes and are revered for their successes, whereas had they remained in Japan, they would not be as well-respected. Obviously, Hijikata himself never left Japan, though the spread of Butoh internationally has increased its popularity in Japan. Butoh in the present is no longer considered "Butoh," it is looked upon as "post-Butoh," understandably since it has been almost fifty years since Kinjiki was first performed.
Compared to Old Japan, Modern Japan is radical and crazy, from the hairstyles and fashion trends of teenagers in the Ginza or in Harajuku, to racy anime cartoons and comic books. Nonetheless, certain elements of Japanese culture have remained, like honne/tatemae, continuing to lead and guide Japanese society and the behavior of the Japanese. Butoh and newer inventions add to the complexity of Japan's rich culture and history. For this reason, I must emphasize that Japanese culture and its relationship to modern dance necessitates much more study, especially the work of Ito Michio upon his return to Japan. As Hijikata Tatsumi believed, (in the words of Murobushi Ko) "Butoh is not yet achieved" 36 Butoh is a process without end. All dance is infinite, not capable of termination. The works of new choreographers and those of old amalgamate continuously. The sole way, as a community of scholars and academics, to truly understand this surreal progression and its place in history is to take up dance as a study. We have much to learn.
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