>  Before the Age of Discovery

>  Mongol invasions [1220, 1258] and rise of trans - Eurasian trade.
>  Marco Polo:  travels [1271-1295], wrote book [1298-99]; circulated in ms.  Finally printed in 1477 [25 years after the Gutenberg Bible].  His message:  other civilizations exist, and also barbarians, and great wealth lies in the East.
>  Roger Bacon:  1220-1292 [peak writing activity:  1247-57]; dependent on the pope; admiration for the East
 >  14th c:  China at the center
>  technology by the 1300s:  paper and printing [woodblock moveable type], iron and steel, weaponry [guns, cannons, bombs], shipbuilding and navigational techniques, exports of silk and porcelain.
>  business practices:  production and distribution [guilds, paper money [backed by the state vs Europe which was backed by individual merchant family/corporations] and credit, control over imports/exports [overland trade controlled by Mongols in C.A.; sea trade expanding].
>  Hangchow:  large, ethnically diverse [many Turks]; Zaytun considered by Marco Polo the greatest port in the world; Zaytun and the English word "satan".
 >  Why China withdrew 
>  1320:  first signs of Black Death in China:  1350-69:  Black Death devastates China
 >  1347  Black Death reaches Europe
>  1368:  Ming dynasty take over as Yuan [Mongols] withdraw from China to escape the Black Death
 >  Ming reassert local, indigenous culture [vs Mongol]
>  1390s:  Ming have 3500 ocean-going ships; 1700 warships; 400 armed grain trasport ships.
>  early 1400s Ming are more established, enlarge navy, press out to sea, 1405 Admiral Cheng Ho:  takes a large navy into Indian Ocean
>  1407:  conquer Annam:  Chinese hegemony on eastern seas
>  1428:  evacuate Tonkin after a major defeat
 >  after 1435 Ming dynasty backs off, shuts down fleet 
>  1390s:  Tamerlane in control of Central Asian trade lines, interrupts flow between east and west
>  1400s:  Tamerlane in control of Central Asian trade lines, interrupts flow between east and west
>  Confusianism?  Use by the Ming to secure internal loyalty, order
>  collapse of Ming economy in mid-1400s because trade in south, on the sea route could not make up for losses in north trade system
>  1457 First printing of a dated book in Europe:  Selections from the Psalms in Latin, using Gutenberg's invention 

>  Age of Discovery

>  Rise of the spice trade:  eventual control of the East Med by Venice, shutting out Genoa, which must
 >  1492 Columbus
 >  1497-9 Vasco Da Gama:  India
 >  1519  Cortez in Mexico
>  1522 Ferdinand Magellan completes the circumnavigation of the globe
 >  1533  Pizzaro in Peru
>  1552:  one of the first publications on the "different races of man":  customs, origins, folklore
>  Michel de Montaigne [French] 1533-1592:  admired the life and customs of the "cannibals of Brazil.
>  Frances Bacon:  1561-1626 : dependent on the monarch (Elizabeth, James I); indifference for the knowledge of the East, focus on empirical knowledge to be gained by reational minds in the West
 >  1606  A Dutch navigator explores coast of Australia
 >  1642  Tasmania is discovered
>  rise of the slave trade.  Began with the Portuguese explorers:  reached its peak in 1700s.
>  rise of European power and maritime trade:  impact on empires of the East:  Ottomans, Safavids [Iran], Mughals [India].  British in India 
> 1757  Battle of Plassey:  in which British East India company secured its position in India
>  1765  Grant of rights to collect revenue to East India Company by the Mughal emperor 
>  1768-1779:  Captain Cook's voyages:  Showed emptiness of the South Pacific, mapped west coast of Australia, surveyed NW coast of America; his death and apotheosis [the 'myth' is born].  Publications of his first voyages in 1773.  In 1785 publication of the accounts of his third voyage; many editions are published and sold out, much of it is pirated.  Cook becomes a national hero.  This was on "the eve of Europe's self-persuasion that the whole world was primitively native to the civilized stranger" [G. Dening in NYT Book Review 8/11/85, p 19]
>  inventions in this period:  accurate sextant; chronometer [enabled comparison of noon times with GMT]

>  Ethnographic reports of the times

 >  Jesuit Relations 73 volumes, 1610 - 1791
>  1609  de la Vega:  On Traits and origins of the Incas and history of Peru
 >  1613  Samual Purchas:  On "religions of all ages"
 >  1632  Sagard:  On his travels among the Hurons 
>  1665  Rockfort:  Natural and Moral History of the Antilles and America
>  1724  Lafiteau:  Customs of American Savages Compared to Customs of Ancient Times
 >  1785 + reports of Cook's voyages
>  Wm. Carey in late 1790s; starts the modern missionary movement.

>  New info re rest of the world stimulates, first, scientific thought, then social thought, social critique:  questioning re established mores, devine right ..
 >  astronomy, physics, chemistry, geography
>  Rene Descartes [1596-1650]:  Descartes and rationalism:  certainty could only be possible if things were absolutely determined by certain causes [i.e., causes of condensation, evaporation, etc.]; however, it was impossible to know what determines history.
>  Isaac Newton [1642 - 1727]  Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Natrualis [1687].   Newton [physics] became the ideal model of a "law" in nature.
Newton's law:  there was not a different law for different kinds of matter [Aristotle] but every object could be explained by a single quality, its mass.  And mass possesses inertia [operative as gravity].  Example:  The moon tends to move in one direction but it is deflected from a straight line by another force that is at work upon it:  the graviation of the earth.  [Newton studied the epistles of Paul with John Locke] 
 >>  Herschel discovered Uranus March 13, 1781.

>  Social philosphy begins

>  development of social philosophy to explain diversity and critique their own societies
>  use of "savages" to explain arguments about the human condition
>  1651  Thomas Hobbes [1588 - 1679]:  Leviathan.  2 years after execution of Charles the I; that is, during a period of disorder, two civil wars [1642-1646, 1648] just before Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector.  The natural condition of man is "warre against all":  Every man's hand was against his neighbor.  [blood feud].  Natural state of man was (as among the American Indians) without government:  "For the savage people in many places of Amereica, except the government of small families, the concord of which dependeth on natural lust, have no government at all, and live to this day in that brutal manner."  Their life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short".  I.e., government is necessary to preserve the peace against the tendency to war ["warre"], and the government is based on power and legitimated by power.  The best state of man is to be governed -- i.e., civilized.  [NB the rules:  imposed.].  Hobbes thought he had founded the science of politics, because he saw the same principles working everywhere the same.  He had a cause-effect view of social phenomena, following the scientists Bacon, Copernicus, Galileo, Harvey.

> 18th C. and the enlightenment:  from c. 1688 to 1800
.
>  What was happening:  discovery; rise of slaving and colonial powers. 
>  British in India after 1723.  Early formation of european colonies around the world.  Captain Cook's voyages:  NB by 1800 there would be a rebellion of blacks in Haiti, which the French could not imagine and therefore could not internalize, and wrote out of history .  Sale of Louisiana by Nepoleon in 1803 to US under Jefferson.
>  The times:  print media was broadening its influence [33,000 copies of newspapers/day]; a new bourgeoisie was become affluent; England especially was becoming socially more diverse; translations of written works were increasing, wider circulation of ideas.

>  Giovanni Batista Vico [1668-1744].  The New Science 1725 [not appreciated until turn of the next century].
His times:  [Remember Descartes and rationalism:  certainty was only possible if things were absolutely determined by certain causes [i.e., causes of condensation, evaporation, etc.], but it was impossible to know what determines history.]  Historians were however at same time developing methods of improving "certainty" about historical documents.  Great compilations of carefully edited historical documents [e.g., Erasmus's Greek New Testament] began in the 17th C.  Even so, it was considered impossible to know what "caused" human actions. 
Vico criticized Descartes' conception of "man" and an individual actor:  V. said "man" is always socially situated.  People's actions were governed by socially shared motives, beliefs, attitudes:  saw "man" as a socially conditioned entity [free will within socially shaped limits].  Moreover, each person is situated within certain classes within the wider society:  Society had a structure and the specific social contexts of people shaped their behavior [e.g., landlords, peasants, etc.].  Each of those social units was shaped by a guiding spirit, which impressed itself upon each of the members.  Thus, to understand people we much understand the prevailing currents of thought within each.  Rationality is not innate in situations but variable and historically acquired.  Ideas follow the order of institutions.  By a scientific approach can develop rational governments, societies. 

>  Charles Louis Secondat ... Baron de Montesquieu:  Powerful influence on intellectuals of the 18th c.  including the American framers of the Constitution.  “Comte and Durkheim declared Montesquieu to be the most important precursor of sociology. … [others thought him to be] ‘The father of modern historical research’ and of a ‘comparative theory of politics and law base on wide obervations of actual systems.’” {{Melvin Ritcher, 1977.  The Political Theory of Monstesquieu.  Cambridge:  pp 4-5}.
“M.’s concept of a society as having a general spirit pervading all its aspects clearly anticipates modern cultural anthropology.” {Ritcher 1977:5}
The Persian Letters [1721]; Considerations on the Causes of the Romans’ Greatness and Decline [1934]; Spirit of Laws [1748]. 
Spirit of Laws [1748]: “Law” is a relation among things; “could be applied to the acts of legislators, to the causes alleged to explain human behavior, or to the principles of physics or biology” [Ritcher 1997: 8].  “… his distinctive dilemma:  how to explain the causes of legal, political, and social phenomena and yet retain a retioanl basis for condemning some governments and their actions (such as the Spanish conquest of the Americas), or certain practices that are social or religious (slavery, the Inquisition, or the burning to death of Indian widows after their husband’s deaths).  Can we both explain why someone acts as he does and condemn him morally for not having acted otherwise?” {Ritcher 1977:8-9} [i.e., the problem of what IS vs what OUGHT TO BE.]
Some questions about Montesquieu:  (1) Was he a relativist about law, government, society, or did he assume “natural law of a sort that judges all human practices and institutions by the same standard of reason, the commands of God, or the nature of things?”  (2) Did he provide grounds for censuring “arrangements established anywhere in the world?  For he condemned slavery, torture, religious persecution and despotism.” (3) Did he produce a system on the model of the natural sciences? [Ritcher ’77:17] 
Some observers believed he thought there is no universal natural law; laws are adapted and changed to fit conditions [geographic, density of population, degree of isolation, stages of technical development, subsistance styles, commerce, soil, climate].  :: Functionalistic – And yet he critiqued some social practices on moral grounds.

>  François Marie Arouet Voltaire. His quarrel with the establishment:  monarchy and the Church: Emphasis on equality.  [Columbia Enc.  pp.697].  Ecrasez l'infâme "tread down the loathsome thing".  1756 "Essay on the customs and spirit of nations":  Invented the term "philosophy of history":  Scientific explanation should be founded on "philosophy" [i.e., use of critical and objective methods of analysis] rather than "theology":  i.e. without reference to the providence of God.

>  David Hume [1711-1776].  Objected to Hobbes's cause and effect conception of social life and history.  Hobbes:  principles work the same everywhere.  Hume:  principles of cause and effect are mental habits that are different at different times and different among different peoples:  :: not self-evident.  "custom is the great guide of human life".   Community life is based on conventions, not natural law, and conventions vary.  Thus, he couldn't be sure about anything:  [Hobbes believed natural conditions were basic to ordering social life; Hume argued that "conventions" [culture] was basic and variable.]  A major issue was religion:  found virtually among all peoples, yet did not have any obvious utility [i.e., like technology or family life].  His solution:  religion does not derive from reason [thus, outside the range of what can be known with certainty [Descartes]].  He believed early man did not reflect, was driven by emotions, fears, passions.  Fear was the strongest emotion:  fear of demons and hope of controlling them was at the root of all religion.  Supposed that earliest religion was polytheistic because primitive men would have assigned separate causes to events:  many demons and dieties.  They would have been approached more earnestly in times of stress.  His Treatise of Human Nature has the subtitle "being an attempt to introduce the experimental method [of Bacon and Newton] into moral subjects."
Hume:  [1778] The History of England, From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to 1688.  Evolution from government of will to a government of law. 

>  Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques  1750:  "On the successive advances of the human mind":  i.e., evolutionary advances led to or entailed improvements in rationality.  [one of the most influential writers of his times]

>Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de. 
 French philosopher of the Enlightenment and advocate of educational reform. He was one of the major Revolutionary formulators of the ideas of progress, or the indefinite perfectibility of mankind.  … In 1792 he presented a scheme for a system of state education, which was the basis of that ultimately adopted. … Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (1795; Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind). Its fundamental idea is that of the continuous progress of the human race to an ultimate perfection. He represents humans as starting from the lowest stage of savagery with no superiority over the other animals save that of bodily organization and as advancing uninterruptedly in the path of enlightenment, virtue, and happiness. The stages that the human race has already gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history, are regarded as nine in number. // There is an epoch of the future—a 10th epoch—and the most original part of Condorcet's treatise is that which is devoted to it
>  Charles de brosses (1709 - 1777).  1760:  Du Culte des dieux fetishes, or, parallèle de l'ancienne religion de l'Egypte avec la religion actuelle de Nigritie.  Believed the animals depicted on Egyptian pictographs were their gods.  Noted that Egyptians and all "pagan" societies worshipped natural objects:  ::  decided that all religion began as object worship, which he called "fetishism".  Evolution of worship:  astrolatry, "pure fetishism", anthropomorphic polytheism [demons?], monotheism.  [Translated Hume's Natural History of Religion but replaced Hume's word "polytheism" with "fetishism".  His agenda:  to attack all religion:  described early humans as stupid, debilitated, sick, terrorstruck. 

>  1750 - 1772:   Encyclopédie, or Dictionnaire raisonné des arts, des sciences et des métiers as the defining work of the Enlightenment.  Denis Diderot and D'Alembert [mathematician].  Invitation to translate English encyclopedia of Ephraim Chambers.  A project of the philosophes:  Introduced many new articles reflecting interests of the times:  "Man", "Society", "Method", "Nature".  Themes of the work: 
• Progess and perfectibility:  Buffon:  what distinguishes man from the animals is his perfectability.; 
• Stages of evolution. The progress of civilization was generally taken to be due to individual initiative.  England was regarded as the most advanced of a process of freedom started in the city republics.  Reconstruction of the stages of human evolution is a means of determining one's own place in the history of civilization. 
• Nature and the natural: the search for identifying what was natural and what was created by civilization, culture, education:  what was 'national character'?, was the inequality of classes 'natural'?.  The nature and natural history of:   religion, the soul, law, reason, sentiment, taste, virtue, happiness, innocence, society, providence, etc. 
• Liberty:  Liberty of action will allow creation of great things.  But liberty is a gift of culture [vs Rousseau] not nature. Widely used but ambiguously. 
• Reason:  [following Bacon, Newton]. 
• Happiness and Utility: 
• Politics: [and the rise of a "public"]  There begins open social critique:  the source of authority is displaced from the state to the society; subjects become citizens;  Vs Hobbes it meant not acceptance of authority but critical scrutiny of social issues.  Self-conscious examination of institutions;  emergence of statistical reasoning based on questionnaires. 
• Education:  Education can be a tool of citizenship, a device for social improvement. 

Smith:  agriculture > manufacture > commerce; Millar:  barbarism > matriarchy > pastoral age > agriculture>  useful arts and manufactures > "great opulence and culture of the elegant arts"; 
"conjectural history" was based on careful conjectures based on details and experience and historical probability

>  Gibbon 1776- 1788.  History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. 
>  3 levels of social change:  Technical improvements [roads, etc.]; legal-political-economic infrastructural changes; representative achievements of culture. 
>  changes at the time:  transport improvements; displacement of populations into the cities; breakdown of the guilds; questioning of structures of power;  devine right;  society is not immutable but are situationally created, they are creations of history. 
Adam Smith:  1776:  The Wealth of Nations.
Edmund Burke writing between 1770-1790.  Reflections on the Revolution in France.
>  Wm Paley [1743-1805]  1785: The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy

>  Note the major issues of the enlightenment period: 
>  Modernism:  The emergence in the early modern consciousness of the three "humiliations":  earth is not at the center of the universe; man is conceived as a natural creature like others; man's reason is subject to passions and subconscious urges.
>  The cause of evolutionary progress:  why was Europe ahead?
>  The science of human nature 
>  The science of authority and legislation.  For example in the Encyclopédie
  >  Nature of laws, customs, and morals 

>  Gibbon 1776- 1788.  History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. 
>  3 levels of social change:  Technical improvements [roads, etc.]; legal-political-economic infrastructural changes; representative achievements of culture.
>  changes at the time:  transport improvements; displacement of populations into the cities; breakdown of the guilds; questioning of structures of power;  devine right;  society is not immutable but are situationally created, they are creations of history. 

>  The science of human nature and the science of the legislator become central issues:  how to rationally organize society and government in the interest of the collectivity.  "Locke's investigtion of human understanding is part of the science of human nature which comes to characterize the Enlightenment."  p.95b.

>  contrast 18th c and 19th c
1  >  18th c social philosophy and the rights of man:    19th c.  tended to more empirical examination:  Lyell on geology; archaeological discovery; But still:  social philosophy in Spencer; Nott and Glidden
2 >  18th enlightenment:  modernization, progress, reason; 19th C:  counter revolution, romantic notions of inborne character
3 >  19th C evolution becomes a dominant theme:  progress, betterment:  cf.  abolishing of slavery

>  19th C Evolutionism

>>  George Louis Leclerc stated the geologists' creed in 1778.
>>  Hutton:  theory of the Earth published in 1795.
>>  Charles Lyell:  The causes which produced the former revolutions [i.e. dramatic changes] of the globe" were the same as "those now in everyday operation"  -- uniformitarianism 
>  continued exploration in 19th C:  Livingstone, Stanley; search for the origins of the Nile.

>  Malthus [T. R.] 1798:  An Essay on the Principles of Population.  Humanity was doomed to suffer because of the difference between capacities of reproduction and production.  NB what this does to Enlightenment hopes for progress. 
>  Lamarck [Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de] [1744- 1829]:  use of faculties led to their development;  in the process of adapting to environment organisms changed.
>  Saint-Simon [Comte Henri de] [dates?].  popular in 1820s-1830s.  "positivism" invented.  Comparied earliest times known to him [ancient Egypt] to "infancy"; Greaco-Roman times to "youth"; and modern times with maturity -- highest level of evolution [manifest in a highly organized technocracy]

>  Hegel [Georg Wilhelm Friedrich] 1770- 1831].  Steps of freedom:  Oriental world the tyrant was free; Midieval world the nobility were free; modern world, all [the whole nation] were free.  But the history of mankind [ex. Napoleon] revealed that freedom revealed itself through conflict.  A force-"thesis" [an institution, an "idea bearing people"] held or claimed power;  an opposition-antithesis would develop against it; resulting in a new -synthesis.   Evolution by antithesis.  The individual could realize himself/herself through a contribution to the state, which was the highest form of human achievement.  ::  war and spread of beneficient power could be desirable; individuals by their different capacities would be sorted out into various degrees of usefulness to the state.  Evolution of the state:  by synthesizing opposing viewpoints to achieve a higher level of organization.  NB:  war was progressive; gave rise to new progressive social forms 
>  Comte [Auguste] 1798-1857.  [picks up Saint-Simon's concept of positivism].   1830-42: Course in Positivist Philosophy. In man's infancy he was religious, endowed everything object with indwelling gods; later [Middel Ages] man becomes metaphysical, frames abstractions of things and attributes power to the abstraction; modern man then begins to think "positive', to study objects and thier relationships as they are given in nature.
 >  NB evolutionary thought was becoming central to social thought.
>  1830  Sir Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, [mentioned above]; change by slow accretions
>  Chambers.  Vestiges of Creation [1844].  Two creative impulses:  1) to separate forms of life, creating higher and higher forms of life; 2)  to modify the organic forms to fit their environment:  :: creative and evolutionary.
>  Spencer, Herbert .  Beginning in 1840s was promoting evolutionary idea:  His life agenda was to describe the universal laws of development. 
 >  In 1850 published Social Statics with ideas that would later be called "social Darwinism".  Better to call it Spencerism.   [Harris 124] From Lyell decided that evolution was the great law of nature [cf Newton].  the universe exhibited "one continuous and progressive scheme of development' [Harris 114]; coined the term "survival of the fittest" [H 118]; 
 >  1852:  The Develpmental Hypothesis; 
 >  1857 "Progress, its Laws and Cause".  Goal to explain everything by natural laws; to explain by a succession of increments.
 >  Spencer and Huxley:  described societies as organisms:  elements within a society would conflict and the poorer elements -- "lesser breeds without the law" -- would be pushed aside by stronger elements:  nature would select the survivor; "survival of the fittest"
> 1854:  Nott and Glidden:  Types of Mankind [on the inequality of races]
>  Evolutionary catch phrases of the times:  natural law, survival of the fittest, natural selection, struggle for existence.

NB:  the agenda:  to explain all phenomena by natural laws [cf Voltaire:  without reference to the providence of God]; and to see change over time:  age of the earth problem

>  Wallace, Alfred.  in 1858 a memoir to Linnean Society:  discovery of the principle of natural selection.  His idea vs Malthus [Harris 123]  Reaction by Lyell and Darwin's friends.  Publisher for Darwin:  agreed because of Lyell's recommendation.  Darwin's idea was published at the same time with Wallace's article, in recognition that Darwin had already been identified with the idea among his friends.
>  Darwin, Charles. 
 >  background, country farmer:  emph on breadth of skills and relationship between living things in the garden:  owls eat mice; mice eat crops
 >  he was aware of Thomas Malthus's Principles of Population:  that populations increase in geometric ratio:  :: populations must be being checked by something
 >  1831-36.  Voyage of the Beagle.  Left Cambridge to be a naturalist.  Galapagos Isl.  Each isl. had its own distinct populations.  The species were somewhat different, each had counterparts on other islands and on the continent as well.  Believed they must be have a common ancestry.  Malthus's pop increase must be being checked. 
 >  1859:  On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Prservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for LIfe.  Saw progress vs Malthus; progress could be inevitable, built into nature. Progess through struggle [Harris120-121]. 
 >  A problem with the theory:  what could make species different?; Darwin's theory was not about a creative process but a selective process.  Eventually Mendel in biology would provide an answer.
 >  impact on social thought:  In social things, the fittest would survive if nature were allowed to take its course.  :: by implication the superior position of W. Europeans in the world was natural.
  >  a naturalistic theory about the origins of man was implied
  >  social differences may have evolved naturally
  >  what is, is good [or may be good]:  cf colonial power
 >  some thinkers came :: to think that everything in the name of morality and religion was of doubtful value and in fact was contrary to the fundamental laws of nature, an impediment to human progress.  NB the contrast between morals and power; [culture and biology?]

Implications of the evolutionary paradigm 
>  it was a naturalistic theory of the origins of living things:  man
>  it was a naturalistic theory of social evolution:  social differences evolved "naturally"
 >  ::  whatever was, was OK  [cf Hegel]
>  [for some]  the essential challenge to moralism:  everything taught in the name of morality and religious was doubtful and at odds with the fundamental laws of nature -- an impedement to human progress.  NB the contrast is set up between morals and power; and between culture and biology
>  Problem of reductionism::  [recently] Dobzanski:  Biological basis of human freedom;  Skinner:  Beyond freedom and dignity; E.O. Wilson:  Sociobiology [now called evolutionary psychology]
 This is the context of the rise of a self-conscious anthropology
>  It would be "scientific":  Tylor:  assumed that human behavior was a natural phenomenon, caused and regular, which could be subjected to objective study and analysis with the hope of discovering or formulating the laws of cultural process and evolution.
NB:  it would oppose the notion of free will.  Tylor p 28a-b.
>  It would be evolutionary
>  It would challenge contemporary notions of morality:  NB the problems for some early anthropologists who had religious backgrounds:  missionaries.  Virtually all the major thinkers in anthropology had had a judeoChristian background and had abandoned it.  The one major exception was Wm Robertson Smith

>  Important sociological works in mid-19th century: 
>  Alexis deTocqueville's Democracy in America:  first published in French in 1839?; 12th edition was in 1848.
>  Henry Mayhew.  1861-2 [1849-50].  London Labour and the London Poor.  In four volumes.  [current edition:  1968, Intro by John D. Rosenberg.  New York:  Dover].

>  The general assumptions of evolutionary anthropology [GSAfterTylor 151:]
 >  comparative method [but note Smith]
 >  psychic unity
 >  independent invention [vs diffusionists]
 >  stages of cultural development
 >  survivals
>  Some pervasive, continuing issues
 > science of human study [vs humanism of Max Müller]
 > the mechanisms that drove cultural evolution:  Hegel, Spencer, Morgan, Louis Henry
>  Kinship:  what did the terms mean?  Morgan:  streams of blood; McLennan, merely "etiquette"
>  incest rule: where did it come from?  In a sense, this was part of McLennon's scheme, and Smith's [cf  Westermark vs Tylor GSAfter 154]

Anthropological works during the period

>  1836:  Albert Gallatin.  notes the practice of out marriage ["exogamy"] among the Ajibway, and their rules were to marry out into another "totemic clan":  the totem was an animal/object by which the clan named itself. 
>  1841:  George Grey found "totemic clans" in Australia, discovered Gallatin's article and adopted his term

>  1861:  Sir Henry Maine:  Ancient Law
>  His focus was on "the progressive societies" {Harris 1968:190}, which included European and "Aryan" societies of India [where he worked]
 >  NB this was about "ancient" [not primitive] societies 
>  saw an evolutionary progression:  from "status" relations [as familial] to "contract" relations, based on agreements, laws, etc.  Ancient Law -- contract relations -- overlay early status [familial] relations
>  "cognatic" relations:  family relationships reckoned through either the males or females. 
 >  "agnatic" relations:  through males only:  ? patrilineal societies
>  he saw more examples of agnatic family relations as he went back in time:  ? decided that patrilineal relations were earlier, more primitive.  ? thought the oldest were "patriarchal". 
>  he was attacked by McLennan but replied that the good evidence was for patrilineal societies; could not conceive of how matrilineal societies worked

>  1861:  J. J. Bachofen:  Das Mutterricht.
>  found "matriarchal" societies earliest.  Called them "matriarchal", origianlly women rules, later mothers became line through which relationships were counted

>  1865:  J. F. McLennan:  Primitive Marriage. [notes from Lowie's History ...]
>  "All the races of men have had, to speak broadly, a development from savagery of the same general character:
 >  stages of savagery:
  >  original state of promiscuity 
 >  archaic polyandry [no connection among the males of a woman] : in this case children were raised in matrilineal society, continued connections through the woman and her relatives:  ? matrilineal
 >  fraternal polyandry -- brothers with a common wife :  in this case children were rasied in patrilineal society, virilocal [patrilocal] rule of residence.  but apparently matrilineal 
 >  stressed survivals:  "wherever we observe symbolical forms, we are justified in inferring that in the past life of the people employing them there were corresponding realities."
 >  in particular was taken by ritual of bride capture:  believed it simulated true situations in former times when this was done "in grim earnest".
 >  thought of exogamous and endogamous societies
  >  exogamy was result of the general practice of female infanticide
   >  babies left to die
   >  sexual imbalance =>  wife catching [marriage by capture]
  >  therefore rule of exogamy:  (1865: 289  [Prim Marriage]): "In time it came to be considered improper, because it was unusual, for a man to marry a woman of his own group" [quoted in Harris 1968:193]
 >  A Question:  the rule comes from the practice?  or practice from the rule?
 >  totemism was when these exogamous groups came to believe they had certain animals as their ancestors. 
>  Later, McLennan took another view:  female descent preceded wife-capture and exogamy. 
 >  Endogamous groups crystallized around "primitive mothers"; 
 >  the groups then broke into separate "bands" that maintained their totem identity even while dispersed. 
 >  But members of the same totemic band felt it improper to to steal each other's women.  They were then obliged to steal women from "a stock different fromt their own". 
 >  Eventually cohabitation that was considered proper was with a captured women; improper to cohabit with own group's women [i.e. incest] ? exogamy
 >  then wife-capture led to a shift from polyandry to polygyny:  men who were successful at wife capture accummulated women.
  >  at first:  brothers shared the women [fraternal]
  >  later:  brothers only could have a woman after the first man's death:  ? levirate
 >  descendants of these marriages were then given out in marriages by mock capture
  >  with the growth of property [including women], patrilineal descent replaced matrilineal descent.

>  NB the confusion re endogamous and exogamous:  Morgan's critique:  societies may be endogamous with respect to a larger group but exogamous with respect to a smaller group within the larger one.

>  John McLennan:  his influence on Scottish thinkers [esp Robertson Smith]
>  Interest in "totemism"  [reported on by J. Long in 1791 who got the term from Algonquin language]
>  "totemism" = association b/n human groups and certain animals or plants, sometimes entailing ritual regulations [eating avoidance]: 
>  McL:  believed t. was a remnant of earlier practices from time of "animistic" beliefs [i.e., that animals and things were infused with spirits or souls that can influence people]

>  q:  what is a "better" society?   how to decide what is better?  the radical Islamist movement and its concept of "better"
>  where we are going:  discussions about culture, what it is, how it gets formed, etc.

>  Wm Robertson Smith
 >  NB studied within a specific social grouping, did not try to compare beyond the specific group [vs the other evolutionists]  [GSAfter p 71]
 >  social institutions were the context for the propagation [today we would say "reproduction"] of religious ideas.
 >  emphasized social functions of feasting, ritual communion with God, sacrifice and the maintenance of the social group:  religion and political institutions are "parts of one whole social custom". (1956 [1889]: 29):  "... we try to understand what the institutions were, and how they shaped men's lives  ...  we must not begin by asking what was told about the gods, but what the working religious institutions were, and how they shaped the lives of the worshippers." [cf GSAfter p 81]
 >  loyalty to their totems was a result of the ancient practice of feasting with their god, in which the feasts provided the emotional basis for loyalty to the clan and to their god [totem].
 >  how Smith used McLennan's ideas [GSAfter 71-76]:  by resorting to the comparative method when the trail to the past in his specific people ended
 >  Some final words on WmR. Smith:
 >  his attempt to relate his faith in the judeochristian tradition to current / the latest scholarship; thus forced his data into a mold that had little continuing value.
 >  An instance of the struggle to make a moral orientation match with a comparative social "science". 
 >  possibly behind it was even a struggle to understand the incest rule because the totems [to McLennan and him] became the marks of identity defining the range of sexual practice

Archaeological discoveries and rise of archaeological studies

>  early/ ancient "thunderstones":  considered holy:  in Egypt were strung around necks of the dead; Medieval Church:  relics of war in heaven.  Emperor of the East sent a "heaven axe" to a ruler in the West;  a 12th C Bishop authorized their value as means of conquest in battle, safety on the sea, and in storms, and immunity from night mares.  [White:  Hist of Warfare]
>  1715  Black flint stone weapon was found with bones of an elephant [in England]; was recorded carefully but received little notice
>  1723  Jussieu gave address to French Academy on the "origins and uses of thunderstones":  his point was that they had been found in many places
>  1730  Mahudel explained to the French Academy that these were stone tools used by men in an early period; used plates and drawings to show this
>  1778 Count George Buffon Epoques de la Nature suggested thunder stones were used by early races of men; also wrote a book on the unity of human origins and diversity of development
>  1800  John Frere Lectured to London Society of Antiquaries on many flint tools found in one site in England.  Believed they were from men living in ancient geological time.

NB:  By this time Enlightenment period is giving way to 19th C. thought:  growing sense of evolution as a paradigmatic framework for all knowledge

>  1806 Danish commission to investigage geology of the country:  At the Museum of Northen Antiquities Chistian J. Thomsen arranged and classified the finds from shell mounds into "ages":  stone, bronze, iron.
>  1825 Rev McEnery, a RomCath priest explored a cavern in England, found human bones and stone tools and remains of extinct animals.  Kept notes, but they were not published until 30 years later, by someone else.
>  1828  Tournal found human skeleton, bones of extinct animals and tools in a cavern in Narbone [France?]
>  1830  Sir Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, cautious, on geology; became a classic work
>  1833  Schmerling explored many caverns in Belgium:  human skulls and bones of extinct animals [cave bear, hyena, elephant, rhinoceros] and chipped flint tools.
>  1847  Boucher de Perthes:  wrote about Celtic and Antedeluvian Antiquities:  engravings of flint tools and weapons of which he had found thousands in a place in north France:  Abbeville.  He was very imaginative, saw much in the fragments that were not there:  inferences of language, religion, customs
>  1853-4  A long drought, reduced lake Ober Meilen [near Zurich] to reveal stumps of piles, bone, horn and tools; investigations found pottery, tools, bronze, human and animal bones.  First published in 1866.
>  1855  Dr Rigollot, looking for evidence to refute Boucher dug into deposits in St. Acheul [France], was converted to Boucher's views because he found many similar tools.  Importance of this was its influence on English geologists [Falconer, Prestwitch and Lyell] who visited Abbeville and Acheul, were persuated of authenticity of the finds.
>  1857  Schaaffhausen discovered a skeleton in limestone cave in Neaderthal, near Dusseldorf:  remains were not at first considered human, although S. believed so.  But they were a peculiar form, heavy brow ridges:  Virchow [an eminent physiologist] said it was pathalogical, probably the cranium of an idiot. 
>  1861  Edward Lartet, excavations of a grotto of Aurignac with many idnications that the find was from the Quartenary period; found coal, ashes, 8 [out of 9] known-to-be Quartenary animal remains, with human remains.
>  1863  Lyell published Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man; reports a change of heart; joins opinion that man was ancient on the earth [which he had doubted before].
>  1865  First of many congresses of scholars held to discuss these discoveries [in Italy].
>  1860s [?]  In the Kessler cave in Switzerland they found carvings and engravings on bone and stone, showing many specimens of long-vanished species;  Hairy mammoth, cave bear, etc.